Self-administration studies showed an increase in drug ingestion, which indicated compensatory behavior due to pharmacokinetic antagonistic effects generated by the vaccine. Other immunopharmacotherapeutic methods have developed from modifying the position of the aromatic ring. dopamine activity at the nucleus accumbens and reinforcing drug dependence.1C3 Methamphetamine (METH) is a potent psychostimulant that is able to affect a multitude of neurotransmitters,4,5 such as dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, -aminobutyric acid, and histamine, through the inhibition of vesicular monoamine transporters and dysregulation of transmitters at nerve terminals.6C9 In addition to the drug’s extensive effects around the central nervous system (CNS), it is also capable of eliciting peripheral effects due to its sympathomimetic nature stimulating stress response processes,5,10 effectively increasing body temperature and heart rate. Acute METH exposure can also disrupt the bloodCbrain barrier, contributing to structural and functional neural anomalies.9,11,12 Due to METH’s comprehensive and complicated pharmacology involving numerous neurotransmitters, traditional therapeutic approaches for drug abuse through receptor modulation have failed to emerge. In the absence of effective pharmacotherapies, the only modern remedies Cholesteryl oleate available for METH dependency are psychosocial treatments consisting of cognitive behavioral therapy, Cholesteryl oleate residential rehabilitation, contingency management, exercise, matrix model, or repetitive transcranial magnetic Cholesteryl oleate stimulation.6,13,14 While contingency management and cognitive behavioral therapy have shown the most promise,10,14,15 these interventions cannot protect the patient from the compulsion to use METH outside of counseling and some note the difficulty of implementing this approach as a standalone treatment due to high relapse rates.16C19 Thus, there is a continuing, concerted effort to establish a therapeutic approach targeting the physiological repercussions of substance abuse, effectively augmenting the psychological benefits obtained from psychosocial remedies. Although there are no approved or efficacious pharmacotherapies for METH dependence,8,14 some pharmaceuticals have been proposed to attenuate the severe psychological effects of METH use.7,20 Clinical trials examining dopaminergic agents, serotonergic agents, -aminobutyric acid agents, glutamatergic agents, cholinesterase inhibitors, benzoquinolizine derivatives, opioid agents, and nicotinic agents have been observed with varying results in regards to their effects on METH users.7,13,21 Dopamine agonists, modafinil22C26 and bupropion,27C34 have exhibited beneficial responses in METH-dependent patients, while naltrexone,35C39 an RAD51A opioid antagonist, seemed to reduce amphetamine’s reinforcement effects. Despite the promising start, naltrexone revealed conflicting results with some studies showing no differences in METH use between treatment and placebo groups.40,41 Modafinil demonstrated potential benefits in alleviating the physiological side effects instigated by METH abuse, such as high blood pressure, but the compound lacked clear evidence in its ability to reduce METH dependence.23 As for bupropion, efficacy comparisons between light and heavy METH users showed the small molecule could aid in reducing drug usage, but only for members within the former group.30 While some pharmaceutical agents demonstrate promising results, their clinical studies consist of small, biased sample sizes and study protocol completion is often low. These factors contribute to apprehension towards recommending pharmacotherapies as effective measures against METH use disorder. Cholesteryl oleate In addition to obstacles in research, pharmacological treatments for substance abuse commonly create issues related to high cost, limited availability, compliance difficulties, medication abuse, and relapse to dependency after discontinued treatment.42C44 Since small molecules target the same neural pathways as the abused drug, these therapeutic tools could potentially cause addiction as well.6,45,46 With no promising pharmaceutics and copious potential impediments, the alternative is usually to obstruct the abused drug peripherally, prior to it acting centrally. Immunopharmacotherapy accomplishes this alternative approach by using high affinity antibodies to sequester the abused drug while it is in the circulatory system.47 Antibody therapy possesses the potential to promote enduring drug abstinence while producing less of the aforementioned limitations exhibited by pharmacotherapy, since creation of the antibodyCdrug complex obviates drug interaction with the.